Identifying & Attributing Ancient Coins

The Art and Science of Ancient Coin Identification

One of the most rewarding skills in ancient numismatics is the ability to identify and attribute an unknown ancient coin — determining who issued it, when and where it was struck, and what its design elements mean. Unlike modern coins with clearly readable dates and mint marks, ancient coins require knowledge of legends (inscriptions), iconography, portraiture, and historical context. This detective work is part of what makes collecting ancient coins endlessly fascinating.

The good news is that the vast majority of ancient coins encountered at coin shows and in dealer inventories fall into well-documented categories. With practice, you can identify most Roman Imperial, Greek, and Byzantine coins in seconds. The tools and methods described below will accelerate your learning curve and help you attribute even challenging specimens.

Reading Coin Legends

Ancient coin inscriptions (legends) are the primary identification tool. Key points for reading legends:

Greek coins: Legends are in Greek alphabet. City names are often abbreviated — AOE for Athens, SYRA for Syracuse, KOPINΘION for Corinth. Rulers' names appear on Hellenistic coins — ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΥ (Alexandrou = "of Alexander"), ΠΤΟΛΕΜΑΙΟΥ (Ptolemaiou = "of Ptolemy").

Roman coins: Legends are in Latin, typically reading clockwise from the lower left. The obverse legend gives the ruler's name and titles. Standard abbreviations include:

• IMP = Imperator (military commander/emperor)
• CAES or C = Caesar
• AVG = Augustus
• P M = Pontifex Maximus (chief priest)
• TR P = Tribunicia Potestas (tribunician power, often followed by a number indicating the year)
• COS = Consul (followed by a number)
• P P = Pater Patriae (Father of the Country)
• S C = Senatus Consulto (by decree of the Senate — appears on bronze coins)

For example, "IMP CAES TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVG" identifies Emperor Hadrian. The reverse legend typically names a deity, personification, or commemorative theme — "PAX AVGVSTI" (The Peace of the Emperor), "VICTORIA GERMANICA" (Victory over the Germans).

Byzantine coins: Mix of Latin and Greek legends. Emperor names and titles appear with increasing use of Greek from the 7th century onward. Religious inscriptions like IC XC (Jesus Christ) and DN (Dominus Noster = Our Lord) are common.

Identifying Rulers from Portraits

Roman and Byzantine coins feature individualized portraits that allow identification even when legends are partially illegible. Key portrait features to note:

• Hairstyle: Each emperor had a distinctive hairstyle that changed over their reign. Augustus had simple, neat hair; Hadrian was the first bearded emperor; Caracalla had a distinctive military crop.
• Crown/headwear: Laureate (laurel wreath) for standard issues, radiate (sun-ray crown) for double-value denominations, diademed (jeweled band) for later emperors.
• Facial features: Prominent noses (Trajan), strong jaws (Vespasian), youthful features (Nero early reign vs. corpulent later), and other distinctive characteristics help narrow identification.
• Bust type: Draped, cuirassed (armored), or bare bust — these changed by period and denomination.

With practice, most collectors develop the ability to identify common emperors at a glance — much like recognizing modern celebrity faces. This skill is invaluable when sorting through dealer trays at coin shows.

Essential Reference Catalogs

Standard references used to catalog and identify ancient coins:

• RIC (Roman Imperial Coinage): The comprehensive multi-volume catalog of all known Roman Imperial coin types. Each coin is assigned an RIC number (e.g., "RIC 109" for a specific Hadrian denarius type).
• Sear: David Sear's collector-friendly guides — "Roman Coins and Their Values" (5 volumes) and "Greek Coins and Their Values" (2 volumes) are the most accessible starting references.
• Crawford (RRC): Roman Republican Coinage — the standard for Republican coins.
• SNG (Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum): Multi-institution catalog series for Greek coins by collection.
• DOC (Dumbarton Oaks Catalogue): The standard for Byzantine coins.

For everyday identification, online resources are often faster than printed references:

• Wildwinds.com: Comprehensive image database organized by ruler and RIC/Sear number
• acsearch.info: Auction archive with images and realized prices searchable by description
• Forum Ancient Coins gallery: Community-contributed photos organized by ruler and type
• CoinTalk Ancient Coins forum: Post photos for free identification help from experienced collectors

Step-by-Step Attribution Process

When you encounter an unknown ancient coin, follow this systematic process:

1. Determine the civilization: Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Celtic, or other? The style, metal, and general appearance usually make this immediately obvious.
2. Read what you can of the legend: Even partial legends provide crucial identification clues. On Roman coins, the emperor's name is usually the first readable element.
3. Study the portrait: Match the portrait style, hair, and crown type to known rulers. Compare with reference images on Wildwinds or in Sear.
4. Examine the reverse: Identify the deity, personification, or scene depicted. Match the reverse legend to known types in your reference catalog.
5. Check denomination: Weight and metal help determine denomination (aureus, denarius, sestertius, etc.).
6. Look up the RIC/Sear number: Using all the above information, find the specific catalog entry that matches your coin.

This process becomes nearly automatic with experience. After handling a few hundred coins, you'll identify most common types instantly and only need the full process for unusual or challenging pieces. Dealers at coin shows are typically knowledgeable about ancient coins in their inventory and happy to explain attribution — asking questions is one of the best ways to learn.